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MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION FEDERAL STATE BUDGET EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION OF HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION
"IVANOVSK STATE UNIVERSITY"
SHUISKY BRANCH OF IVSU
DEPARTMENT OF PEDAGOGY AND CHILDHOOD PSYCHOLOGY
Course work
In the discipline "Psychology"
FEATURES OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF PERCEPTION OF CHILDREN OF PRIMARY SCHOOL AGE
Work completed:
Ivanenko T.A.
2nd year student, 1st group
correspondence courses
Faculty of Pedagogy and
psychology
Introduction
CHAPTER 1. Theoretical aspects of the problem of development of perception of a primary school student.
Conclusion on chapter 1
CHAPTER 2 Experimental study of the perception of junior schoolchildren
2.2. Quantitative and qualitative analysis of the obtained
Conclusion on chapter 2
Conclusion
Bibliography
Application
Introduction
The relevance of this topic is that one of the central places in human psychological activity is occupied by the perception of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world. Perception is the process that orients a person in the reality around him, helps organize his activities, helps control behavior in accordance with the objective properties and relationships of things. At present and throughout the development of psychology, perception has been the subject of much speculation and research. For example, famous Russian scientists Vygotsky and Elkonin, confirming and refuting Piaget’s theories, study the process of perception as part of intelligence research. Based on the findings, education systems are built and school reform occurs. Perception is a holistic reflection of objects, situations, phenomena that arise from the direct impact of physical stimuli on the receptor surfaces of the sense organs.
Primary school age is a special period in a child’s life. During this period, further physical, psychophysiological and mental development of the child occurs, providing the opportunity for systematic learning at school. The transition to systematic education places high demands on the mental performance of children. And therefore, during primary school age, significant changes occur in the mental development of the child: the cognitive sphere is qualitatively transformed, personality is formed, and a complex system of relationships with peers and adults is formed. And all of the above has a huge impact on the learning process of a primary school student.
A child’s ability to successfully engage in school learning largely depends on the level of development of his perception, or sensory development.
Perception is the basis of cognitive activity, therefore normal mental development of a child is impossible without relying on full perception. The younger schoolchild perceives the life around him with lively curiosity, which reveals something new to them every day. However, perception at the beginning of training is distinguished by peculiar features that allow us to talk about its age-related insufficiency.
The purpose of the study is to study the features of perception development in children of primary school age.
The object of the study is the perception of children of primary school age.
The subject of the study is to study the features of the development of perception of children in grades 1 and 4 in a comparative aspect.
Main goals:
1. Analyze the psychological and pedagogical literature on the problem of the development of perception of children of primary school age.
2. Conduct a diagnostic examination of the development of perception of children of primary school age in grades 1 and 4.
3.Make a quantitative and qualitative analysis of the research results.
theoretical analysis of scientific literature;
observation;
experiment.
Methods: “What is missing in these pictures?”, “Find out who it is?”, “Collect pictures”, test for visual-spatial perception, test for determining the type of perception.
Base: the experimental study was conducted at the municipal educational institution “Primary School No. 18” in grades 1 and 4. The period is from February 1, 2014. to 02/10/2014 We took 5 people from each class. A diagnostic examination is carried out individually with each child.
The structure of the work consists of content, introduction, main part, which consists of two chapters, conclusion, list of references and appendices.
CHAPTER 1. Theoretical aspects of the problem of development of perception of a primary school student
1.1 The essence of perception as a mental process
Considering sensations, we say that they allow us to recognize only individual properties of objects. If we encounter them, they help us quickly distinguish objects.
Reflecting on the diversity of your sensations, you come to the conclusion that these properties do not exist separately on their own, but are associated with an object or phenomenon. This is how we usually say “the smell of violets”, “the sound of rain”, “the gait of a peacock”, “the taste of lemon”, etc. The process of perception helps us combine individual properties of objects into a holistic image. Perception (perception, from Latin perceptio) is a cognitive process that forms a subjective picture of the world.
According to S.S. Korneenkov, perception is a cognitive mental process of reflection in the human mind of phenomena as a whole that directly affect the sense organs, and not of their individual properties, as happens with sensation. Perception is always a set of sensations, and sensation is an integral part of perception. However, perception is not a simple sum of sensations received from this or that object, but a qualitatively and quantitatively new stage of sensory cognition with its inherent characteristics. The main and main condition for the emergence of perception is the impact of objects and phenomena of the objective world on the senses. But this in no way reduces the importance of the subject’s activity. The main task of perception is to form in a person correct images of the surrounding and internal reality.
Based on the textbook by V.A. Krutetsky. perception is the reflection in the cerebral cortex of objects and phenomena acting on human analyzers.
According to the textbook by Yu. N. Lachugina, perception is the process of reflecting objects and phenomena of reality in all the diversity of their properties and aspects that directly affect the senses.
There are other definitions such as:
Perception is a holistic reflection of objects, situations, phenomena that arise from the direct impact of physical stimuli on the receptor surfaces of the sense organs.
Perception is a reflection in a person’s consciousness of objects and phenomena as a whole that directly affect his sense organs, and not their individual properties, as happens with sensation.
Perception is not the sum of sensations received from this or that object, but a qualitatively new level of sensory cognition with its inherent abilities.
Perception is a form of holistic mental reflection of objects or phenomena with their direct impact on the senses.
Combining all the definitions into one, we can conclude that:
Perception is the result of the activity of a system of analyzers. The primary analysis, which takes place in the receptors, is supplemented by the complex analytical and synthetic activity of the brain sections of the analyzers. Unlike sensations, in the processes of perception an image of a complete object is formed by reflecting the entire set of its properties. However, the image of perception is not reduced to a simple sum of sensations, although it includes them in its composition.
According to the classification of Shadrikov V.D., Anisimova N.P., Korneev E.N. Depending on the characteristics of the perceived object, types such as the perception of objects, the perception of speech (written and oral) or music, and the perception of a person by a person are distinguished. The latter has a special name “social perception” and is a professionally important quality of a teacher.
Social perception is an extremely complex phenomenon. It is usually distinguished as if there were two sides, two aspects: cognitive (cognitive) - as the ability to understand by external manifestation what a person is like, to penetrate into the depth of his personality and individuality, and emotional - as a way to determine by external, behavioral signs the emotional state in which a person is at the moment, the ability to empathize, or empathy.
Depending on the predominant role of one or another sense organ (analyzer), visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory and gustatory perception are distinguished.
There is also a classification of types of perception according to the forms of existence of matter. According to this parameter, the perception of time is distinguished - as a reflection of objective temporal duration, speed and sequence of phenomena of reality, the perception of movement - as a change in the position of an object in space and time (i.e. direction and speed) and the perception of space, including the perception of shape an object, its size (extent), depth and distance from the subject, as well as the direction in which the object of perception is located.
The perception of space is, in the words of B. G. Ananyev, a “complex intermodal association,” in other words, the result of the interaction of several senses. Since one of the essential features of perception is comparison, comparison of perceptual images, a special type of perception of space was identified - the eye, defined as “the ability to compare spatial magnitudes of direction and the distance of an object from the observer, which develops as a result of experience.” S.L. Rubinstein divided the eye gauge into linear, planar and volumetric (depth).
In addition, according to the duration of the perceptual process, perception is divided into simultaneous, i.e., one-time, and successive, i.e., unfolded over time.
According to Bogoslovsky V.V. divide types of perception depending on the object of reflection:
1. Perception of the size and shape of objects. The perception of the size and shape of objects is carried out, therefore, with a complex combination of visual, tactile and muscular-motor sensations.
2. Perception of volume and distance of objects. When perceiving the volume or depth of objects, the main role is played by binocular vision (visual perception with two eyes). Monocular vision (viewing with one eye) determines the correct assessment of distance within very limited limits.
3. Illusions of perception of spatial properties of an object. Sometimes the perception of objects is erroneous. Errors (illusions) are detected in the activities of various analyzers. Visual illusions are mostly known. Illusions have a variety of causes: techniques of visual perception developed by life practice, features of the visual analyzer, changes in the conditions of perception, figurative anticipation of what is seen, various visual defects.
4.Perception of time is a reflection of the duration and sequence of phenomena and events.
6.Perception of movement is a reflection of the direction and speed of the spatial existence of objects.
7.Perception of a person by a person. In the process of communication, each person is revealed as a person, as an individuality, which is imprinted in the images and concepts of interacting people.
The leading properties of perception include the following:
1.Integrity is a property that allows you to obtain a holistic image of an object in all the diversity and correlation of its properties and aspects.
2. Objectivity, expressed in the attribution of a visual image of perception to certain objects of the external world or moments of objective reality.
3. Meaningfulness, providing awareness of what is perceived; interpretation of images arising as a result of perception, in accordance with the knowledge of the subject, his past experience, giving them a certain meaning.
4. Generality - a reflection of individual objects as a special manifestation of the general, representing a certain class of objects that are homogeneous with the data on some basis.
5. Constancy, which characterizes the relative constancy of the shape, size and color of objects under changing conditions of their perception (it is thanks to this property that we get the opportunity to recognize objects in different environments).
6.Selectivity - preferential selection of some objects over others, revealing the activity of human perception.
The above properties, inherent to one degree or another in almost all cognitive processes, characterize the essence of the perception process. In addition, perception, like any mental process, has properties that determine its productivity. These include indicators of productivity, quality and reliability of perceptual activity.
1. Volume of perception is the number of objects that a person can perceive during one fixation or per unit of time.
2. Speed, or speed, of perception - the time required for adequate perception of an object or phenomenon.
3. Accuracy - compliance of the emerging image with the characteristics of the perceived object and the task facing the person.
4.Completeness - the degree of such correspondence.
5. Reliability - the possible duration of perception with the required accuracy and the probability of adequate perception of an object under given conditions and within a given time.
It is by these indicators that we can judge the level of development of a person’s perceptual abilities.
Perception is a complex cognitive activity, including a whole system of perceptual actions that make it possible to detect an object of perception, identify it, measure it, and evaluate it.
B.G. Ananyev, who devoted a large amount of research to this problem, identified the following perceptual actions. Let's show this classification using an example table:
Their composition depends on the degree of meaningfulness of perception, i.e. on the understanding of what is perceived and on the nature of the perceptual task facing the person, i.e. on why and for what purpose a person is watching or listening at the moment.
The physiological foundations of perception are complex stimuli functioning simultaneously and the coordinated activity of several analyzers occurring at the same time, occurring with the participation of the associative parts of the cerebral cortex and speech centers.
With sudden physical or emotional fatigue, there may be an increase in susceptibility to ordinary external stimuli - hypersthesia. Its opposite condition is hyposthesia. Perception disorders include agnosia - difficulty recognizing objects, sounds, colors, and images. Hallucinations of perception occur without the presence of a real object (visions, ghosts, imaginary sounds, voices, smells, etc.). Illusions are erroneous perceptions of real things or phenomena.
In psychology, there are four types of perception and observation: analytical, synthetic, analytical-synthetic, emotional.
The analytical type of perception is characterized by a person’s desire to isolate and analyze, first of all, the details, the particulars of what is perceived. It is often difficult for such a person to understand the basic meaning of the object or phenomenon being studied. With students who do not have an analytical type of perception, additional classes should be conducted, highlighting the main thing in the educational material and discarding the secondary.
The synthetic type of perception is characterized by a person’s tendency to generalize the reflection of the perceived object or phenomenon, to determine the basic meaning. People of this type do not like to delve into details. For them, the main thing is to get a general idea. When working with students who have a synthetic type of perception, the teacher must check the completeness of the formed image, for example, the physical exercise being studied, by detailing the information.
The analytical-synthetic type of perception is characterized by a person’s desire for both analysis and synthesis to an equal extent. This type is most effective for perceiving educational material. The majority of students have this type of perception.
The emotional type of perception is characteristic of people who express their feelings about a perceived object or phenomenon. They tend to replace the real objective reflection of what they saw and heard with their own attitude and experiences. Students with an emotional type of perception require special attention. They require repeated showings and explanations, since when repeated, these students’ emotional reaction to the essence of the educational material disappears, and perception takes on a new direction, often erroneous.
1.2 Peculiarities of perception of children of primary school age
Having studied and reviewed various literature on developmental psychology, we were convinced that all authors are of the opinion that primary school age (from 6-7 to 9-10 years) is determined by an important external circumstance in the child’s life - entering school. Currently, the school accepts and parents send their children away at 6-7 years old.
From a physiological point of view, this is a time of physical growth, when children quickly grow upward, there is disharmony in physical development, it is ahead of the child’s neuropsychic development, which affects the temporary weakening of the nervous system. Increased fatigue, anxiety, and increased need to move with other people appear.
A child who enters school automatically takes a completely new place in the system of human relations: he has permanent responsibilities associated with educational activities. Close adults, a teacher, even strangers communicate with the child not only as a unique person, but also as a person who has taken upon himself the obligation (whether voluntarily or under compulsion) to study, like all children of his age.
When a child enters school, a new social development situation is established. The transition from visual-figurative to verbal-logical thinking is completed. The social meaning of the teaching is clearly visible (the attitude of young schoolchildren towards grades). Achievement motivation becomes dominant. There is a change in the reference group. There is a change in the daily routine. A new internal position is being strengthened. The child's relationship system changes. The teacher becomes the center of the social situation of development.
Junior school age promises the child new achievements in a new sphere of human activity - learning. At this age, educational activity becomes the leading one. The structure of educational activities according to D.B. Elkonin: - learning motivation is a system of incentives that forces a child to learn and gives meaning to learning activities. - educational task, i.e. a system of tasks during which the child masters the most common methods of action; - educational actions, those with the help of which the educational task is mastered, i.e. all those actions that the student does in class (specific to each academic subject and general); - control actions - those actions with the help of which the progress of mastering a learning task is controlled; - evaluation action - those actions with the help of which we evaluate the success of mastering a learning task.
A child in primary school learns special psychophysical and mental actions that should serve writing, arithmetic operations, reading, physical education, drawing, manual labor and other types of educational activities. Based on educational activities, under favorable learning conditions and a sufficient level of mental development of the child, prerequisites for theoretical consciousness and thinking arise (D. B. Elkonin, V. V. Davydov).
At school, in new living conditions, these acquired reflexive abilities provide the child with a good service in solving problematic situations in relationships with the teacher and classmates. At the same time, educational activity requires special reflection from the child associated with mental operations: analysis of educational tasks, control and organization of executive actions, as well as control of attention, mnemonic actions, mental planning and problem solving.
General sensitivity to the influence of environmental living conditions, characteristic of childhood, promotes the development of adaptive forms of behavior, reflection and mental functions.
Thus, educational activity determines the most important changes occurring in the development of the psyche at a given age stage. And within the framework of educational activities, psychological new formations are formed that characterize the most significant achievements in the development of primary schoolchildren and are the foundation that ensures development at the next age stage. The process of learning at school includes not only the assimilation of a complex system of knowledge, the formation of many educational and intellectual skills, but also the development of the cognitive processes themselves - attention, memory, thinking, abilities and personality of the child. However, in most cases, it is the knowledge and skills themselves that are considered as the end result of successful learning. As a result, at each new, higher stage of learning, the student experiences great difficulties in mastering and using new educational material. This applies equally to the development of attention, memory, imagination, thinking, speech and perception. All cognitive processes constitute a single system. And since we are talking about the perception of primary school age, I would like to note that at this stage the active development of perception continues. By improving observation, perception becomes an increasingly focused and controlled process.
An important feature of the cognitive activity of a primary school student is the awareness of his own changes as a result of the development of educational activities, which is associated with the emergence of reflection. However, these changes are not carried out immediately under the influence of educational activities; cognitive functions go through a complex development path associated with the increasing ability of children to regulate and manage their behavior.
Perception at primary school age is characterized by involuntariness, although elements of voluntary perception are already encountered in preschool age. Children come to school with fairly developed perception processes: they have high visual and hearing acuity, they are well oriented to many shapes and colors. But first-graders still lack a systematic analysis of the perceived properties and qualities of objects themselves. When looking at a picture or reading a text, they often jump from one to another, missing essential details. This is easy to notice in lessons on drawing an object from life: the drawings are distinguished by a rare variety of shapes and colors, sometimes significantly different from the original.
The perception of a primary school student is determined primarily by the characteristics of the object itself, so children perceive not the most important, essential, but what stands out clearly against the background of other objects (color, size, shape, etc.). The process of perception is often limited only to the recognition and subsequent naming of an object, and first-graders are often incapable of careful and lengthy examination and observation.
Perception in grades 1-2 is characterized by weak differentiation: children often confuse similar and close, but not identical objects and their properties (6 and 9, E and 3, “mirroring”), and among the frequency errors, omissions of letters and words in sentences are noticed, substitutions of letters in words and other letter distortions of words. Most often, the latter is the result of unclear perception of the text by ear. But by the 4th grade, the perception process gradually undergoes significant changes. Children master the “technique” of perception, learn to look, listen, highlight the main, essential, see many details in an object; perception becomes dismembered and turns into a purposeful, controlled, conscious process. Voluntary perception develops.
Speaking about certain types of perception, it should be noted that at primary school age, orientation towards sensory standards of shape, color, and time increases. Thus, it was found that children approach shape and color as separate features of an object and never contrast them. In some cases, they take shape to characterize an object, in others - color.
But in general, the perception of colors and shapes becomes more accurate and differentiated. The perception of shape is better in planar figures, but in naming three-dimensional figures (ball, cone, cylinder) there have long been difficulties and attempts to objectify unfamiliar shapes through specific familiar objects (cylinder = glass, cone = lid, etc.). Children often do not recognize a shape if it is placed in an unusual way (for example, a square with the corner down). This is due to the fact that the child grasps the general appearance of the sign, but not its elements, so at this age tasks on dissection and construction (pentaminoes, geometric mosaics, etc.) are very useful.
The perception of color follows the path of increasingly accurate discrimination of shades and color mixing.
The perception of space and time at primary school age is associated with significant difficulties, although it becomes more correct from class to class. This is due to 1) the lack of a reflex for time and 2) with the fact that the child’s time is filled with.
In the perception of a plot picture, there is a tendency towards interpretation, interpretation of the plot, although a simple listing of the depicted objects or their description is not excluded.
In general, the development of perception is characterized by an increase in arbitrariness. And where the teacher teaches observation and focuses on the different properties of objects, children are better oriented both in reality in general and in the educational material in particular. Thus, in elementary school, under the guidance of a teacher, when forming a preliminary representation, the child forms a purposeful voluntary observation of an object, subordinate to a specific task.
1.3 Development of perception in primary school age
At primary school age, children continue to develop their perception. Elements of arbitrariness in perception, as already noted in the previous paragraph, are also present in a preschool child; the perception of a younger schoolchild is initially involuntary. But gradually the process of perception undergoes significant changes.
The problem of teaching and developing the perception of children of primary school age is given a lot of attention by scientists.
For the educational activity of a primary school student, it is especially important to develop the perception of such spatial properties as the shape of objects.
The peculiarities of perception of the shape of objects have not yet been sufficiently studied. A number of foreign psychologists believe that children contrast shape and color when perceiving an object. However, as studies by E.I. Ignatiev show, children approach shape and color as separate features of an object and never contrast them. In some cases, they take shape to characterize an object, and in others, color. For example, for a flag, the more significant feature is the color, and for a car - the shape.
Research by Soviet psychologists shows that primary schoolchildren widely use the shape of objects when recognizing and comparing them. At first, younger schoolchildren experience certain difficulties when perceiving plane figures. One of the common mistakes, as M.N. Volokitina points out, is the inversion of figures, letters, and numbers when depicting them. Such a mistake should not be held as a big blame for the child and considered that this is a manifestation of some individual negative quality, but should be considered as natural mistakes of age and teaching methods should be selected to combat these mistakes.
In a younger schoolchild, compared to a preschooler, as A. A. Lyublinskaya notes, the accuracy of discrimination and the correct naming of geometric figures increases. This applies primarily to planar figures (square, circle, triangle). At the same time, younger schoolchildren have difficulty naming three-dimensional figures. Usually, before school, children know only two shapes: a ball and a cube. Moreover, the cube is familiar to them not as a geometric body, but as a building material (cube). Children objectify unfamiliar volumetric shapes: a cylinder is called a glass, a cone (overturned) is called a lid, etc. As A. A. Lyublinskaya notes, younger schoolchildren are easily frightened by voluminous bodies with flat shapes. For example, a circle with a ball, the circle is called a “ball”, “ball”. Children often do not recognize a figure if it is located slightly differently. For example, some children do not perceive a straight line as straight if it is vertical or oblique.
In the development of the perception of form and space, a child’s measuring activity plays a significant role in labor lessons, physical education, and natural history.
Speech plays a huge role in the development of voluntary perception. She directs his actions. The word begins to guide the child’s perception; he himself formulates the task verbally. The role of perception is changing. For a first-grader, a naming word, as it were, completes the process of perception (having named an object, children stop analyzing it further). For third grade students, the word performs a different function. Having named the object, children continue to describe it verbally. Pronunciation plays a huge role in speech, for example, when studying and examining complex figures, and main thoughts and conclusions should be emphasized with intonation.
The perception of time for younger schoolchildren presents significant difficulties. Many studies have examined the characteristics of children's perception of short periods of time. Thus, N.S. Shebalin found that the perception of minutes from class to class becomes more and more correct. But most students underestimate the actual length of a minute. On the contrary, when perceiving large periods of time 1 (5, 10, 15 minutes), students exaggerate the actual duration of time. In addition, it must be taken into account that the assessment of time intervals depends on what the time is filled with.
An important issue of practical importance is the study of the perception and reproduction of tempo. E. Maiman also conducted a study on this issue with children 6-14 years old. He showed that children without special exercises can only use medium tempos and simple constructions of beats. He said that younger children under 8 years of age cannot grasp or reproduce fast and slow tempos. For a 7-year-old child, intervals are 0.4 seconds. already represent the highest available speed limit, and at intervals of 2 seconds. Even some 12-year-old children cease to be able to correctly mark them when beating a beat in parallel. The development of accurate perception of time intervals is associated with the nature of the organization of the child’s life and activities. The sense of time does not develop if the student is not accustomed to a daily routine.
According to Melikyan Z.A, the development of visual perception of younger schoolchildren is one of the most pressing problems of education. Every teacher understands that the development of visual perception is impossible without the development of thinking, which means that in order to ensure more successful development of visual perception, it is necessary to achieve the main goal of education - the comprehensive and harmonious development of the individual.
Visual perception serves as the basis for the successful implementation of various types of education: mental, aesthetic, physical and even moral, i.e., the education of the personality of younger schoolchildren as a whole. Visual perception in younger schoolchildren is the development of perception and the formation of ideas about the world around them in which the younger schoolchild lives. Visual perception, on the one hand, forms the foundation of the general mental development of younger schoolchildren, on the other hand, it has independent significance, since full perception is necessary for successful learning among younger schoolchildren at school, and for many types of work
An important regulator of the perception process is the attitude, which can be considered as readiness to perceive the desired material. American researchers conducted experiments and were convinced that the attitude has a huge impact on both the process and the result of perception. A good means of forming an attitude towards perception is verbal instruction.
Research conducted by S.I. Kuryachy showed that depending on the attitude towards the teacher and the adequacy of his assessment by the students, the same personal qualities are perceived differently.
According to V.D. Shadrikov, the accuracy and completeness of perception in younger schoolchildren depends on the correctly chosen location of information. The main material should be located in the center, and, for example, homework is written to the side (in the same place).
And in the studies of L.D. Ershova found that the development of perception and understanding of the personality of a primary school student depends on the gender of both the subject and the object of perception. Thus, male teachers characterize boys better and give more accurate assessments of work. Female teachers are more observant, understand students more fully and deeply.
I would like to note that the development of perception in primary school age is directly related to the issue of visibility in learning. The principle of visibility is one of the main ones in elementary school. In general, it is adequate to the characteristics of the mental development of younger schoolchildren, whose thinking, especially in the first stages of education, is predominantly visual and figurative in nature and is based on the perception of specific features of objects. In order for children to more accurately analyze the quality of perceived objects, they must be specially trained in observation.
To help children improve their holistic perception, the teacher needs to form the missing practical actions and transfer them from external actions to internal ones, thereby forming the basis for successful development. To accomplish this task, the teacher can be helped by collections of exercises for developing the perception of younger schoolchildren, which we can find in any bookstore or library.
Conclusion for chapter 1
Having studied this problem, we can conclude that the basis of perception is the work of our senses. Perception is the main cognitive process of sensory reflection of reality, its objects and phenomena with their direct action on the senses. It is the basis of thinking and practical activity of both an adult and a child, the basis of a person’s orientation in the world around him, in society. Relationships between people are built on the basis of a person’s perception of a person. Upon perception, an adequate image of the subject is formed, which is necessary in the learning process of a primary school student. In this chapter we looked at classifications, types, properties, types of perception. And it is by all these signs that we can judge the level of development of the perception of a primary school student.
We saw. that at the beginning of primary school age perception is not sufficiently differentiated. In order for the student to more subtly analyze the qualities of objects, the teacher must carry out special work, teaching him to observe. By the end of primary school age, with appropriate training, synthesizing perception appears. Developing intelligence creates the ability to establish connections between elements of what is perceived. Despite the fact that visual-figurative thinking is of great importance during this period, what is directly perceived by the child no longer prevents him from reasoning and drawing the right conclusions. We were convinced that many scientists were studying the development of perception of primary school age, who conducted their experiments and research. Having studied the features of their work, the teacher can safely structure the educational process so that the development of children is harmonious, because The teacher will already determine the patterns of learning for himself, taking into account the age and individual characteristics of students in such a cognitive process as perception.
CHAPTER 2. Experimental study of the perception of junior schoolchildren
2.1 Purpose, experimental research methodology
The methods described below make it possible to assess the child’s perception from various angles, identifying, simultaneously with the characteristics of the perceptual processes themselves, the child’s ability to form images, make conclusions related to them, and present these conclusions in verbal form. The purpose of the experimental study is to study the characteristics of the development of perception of children in grades 1 and 4 in a comparative aspect.
Methodology "What is missing from these pictures?"
The essence of this technique is that the child is offered a series of drawings presented below. Each of the pictures in this series is missing some essential detail. The child is given the task to identify and name the missing part as quickly as possible.
The person conducting the psychodiagnostics uses a stopwatch to record the time spent by the child on completing the entire task. The work time is assessed in points, which then serve as the basis for a conclusion about the level of development of the child’s perception.
Evaluation of results:
10 points - the child completed the task in less than 25 seconds, naming all 7 missing objects in the pictures.
8-9 points - the child’s search for all the missing items took from 26 to 30 seconds.
6-7 points - the search time for all missing items took from 31 to 35 seconds.
4-5 points - the search time for all missing items was from 36 to 40 seconds.
2-3 points - the time to search for all missing items was in the range from 41 to 45 seconds.
0-1 point -- the search time for all missing parts was generally more than 45 seconds.
Ratings are given in points, in a ten-point system and are presented in intervals, which are the direct basis for drawing conclusions about the level of psychological development of the child. Along with such general conclusions, the child, as a result of his examination using one method or another, receives specific assessments that allow him to more accurately judge his level of development.
The exact evaluation criteria in the ten-point system are not specified for the reason that a priori, until sufficient experience in using the methods is gained, it is impossible to determine them. In this regard, the researcher is allowed to add or subtract one or two points (within a given range of scores) for the presence or, accordingly, lack of diligence on the part of the child in the process of his work on psychodiagnostic tasks. This procedure generally has little effect on the final results, but allows better differentiation of children.
Conclusions about the level of development:
Method "Find out who it is?"
Goal: to identify the level of development of perception.
Before applying this technique, the child is explained that he will be shown parts, fragments of a certain drawing, from which it will be necessary to determine the whole to which these parts belong, i.e. restore the whole drawing from a part or fragment.
A psychodiagnostic examination using this technique is carried out as follows. The child is shown a drawing in which all fragments are covered with a piece of paper, with the exception of fragment “a”. Based on this fragment, the child is asked to say which general pattern the depicted detail belongs to. 10 seconds are allotted to solve this problem. If during this time the child was unable to correctly answer the question posed, then for the same time - 10 seconds - he is shown the next, slightly more complete picture “b”, and so on until the child finally guesses , which is shown in this figure.
The total time spent by the child on solving the problem and the number of fragments of the drawing that he had to look through before making the final decision are taken into account.
Evaluation of results
10 points - the child was able to correctly determine from fragment of image “a” in less than 10 seconds that the whole picture depicts a dog.
7-9 points - the child established that this picture depicts a dog only from a fragment of image “b”, spending a total of 11 to 20 seconds on this.
4-6 points - the child determined that it was a dog only by fragment “c”, spending 21 to 30 seconds on solving the problem.
2-3 points - the child guessed that it was a dog only from the “g” fragment, spending from 30 to 40 seconds.
0-1 point - the child, in more than 50 seconds, could not guess what kind of animal it was after looking at all three fragments: “a”, “b” and “c”.
Conclusions about the level of development of perception:
Test to determine the type of perception.
Progress of the study: the student is asked to choose from these word combinations one that, in his opinion, is the most suitable and accurate for him for this concept. If several phrases seem equally suitable to him or, conversely, none of them fit absolutely exactly, then he chooses one phrase that, in his opinion, may be the closest.
"Speed"
a) rapid change of landscape, flashing of trees and houses. (+) b) wind noise, rustling tires, squealing brakes. (*) c) rapid heartbeat; feeling of the wind hitting your face. (-) “Bad weather” a) howling wind, the sound of drops. (*) b) chilly, feeling of dampness, humid air. (-) c) dim sky, gray clouds. (+) “Honey” a) sweet smell, sticky lips, viscous. (-) b) golden, transparent liquid. (+) c) the clap of a jar opening, the clinking of spoons, the buzzing of bees. (*) “Sea” a) blue-green water, large waves with white scallops. (+) b) warm, salty water, hot sand. (-) c) the sound of the surf, rustling waves, cries of seagulls. (*) " “Fatigue” a) the body aches, the head is heavy, lethargy. (-) b) the world around seems gray, colorless, a veil before the eyes. (+) c) loud sounds are annoying, I want silence. (*) “Apples” a) a ringing crunch of a bite. (*) b) a round fruit, red, yellow or green in color on a tall tree. (+) c) sweet and sour, juicy taste, the smell of jam. (-) “Snow ” a) a sparkling white blanket sparkling in the sun. (+) b) cold, soft, fluffy. (-) c) creaks underfoot, crackling crust. (*) “Evening” a) blurry colors, bright lantern lights, long shadows. (+) b) muffled sound, voices of loved ones, dinner sizzling in a frying pan. (*) c) a feeling of pleasant fatigue, a soft comfortable chair, a cup of hot tea . (-) “By the fire” a) it’s warm, the smoke stings the eyes, warms. (-) b) tongues of red flame, flaring coals, bluish smoke. (+) c) crackling of coals, hissing of firewood, gurgling of water in a pot. (*) “Tree” a) rustling of leaves, cracking of twigs, creaking of branches. (*) b) tall straight brown trunk, green crown, sun rays peeking through the foliage. (+) c) rough bark, soft foliage, smell of freshness. (-) “Library” a) rustling of pages, muffled speech, creaking of chairs. (*) b) books with smooth covers, weighty volumes, the smell of old books. (-) c) glossy and matte, colorful and multi-colored book covers; high racks. (+) “City” a) enticing shop windows, variety and mixture of different smells. (-) b) tall buildings, gray pavements, bright billboards, colorful cars. (+) c) the noise of cars, the hum of voices, the howl of sirens, slamming doors. (*) “Morning” a) light blue sky, clear air, pink sun appearing from the horizon. (+) b) chirping of birds, silence, quiet rustling of leaves. (*) c) cool air, wet grass, warm rays of the sun, breathing deeply. (-) “Repair” a) the smell of dust, paint, varnish; damp, freshly hung wallpaper. (-) b) clean wallpaper, white ceiling, disorder. (+) c) the sound of a hammer, the squeal of a drill, the echo in empty rooms. (*) “Church” a) the lights of candles, the gold of the altar, the dull colors of ancient icons, twilight. (+) b) the monotonous voice of the worshiper, choral singing, the crackling of candles. (*) c) the sweet smell of incense, the smell of burning wax, a feeling peace. (-) Processing of results: Count the number of answers (+), (*) and (-) (+) - visual, perception of the surrounding world mainly through vision (*) - auditory, perception mainly through the auditory organs (-). ) - kinesthetic, perception mainly through sensations
Test of visuospatial perception.
Equipment: test material, two colored pencils, demonstration card.
Task 1. Now you have a new task.
Look: there are many different shapes drawn on the sheet, but among them there are squares. You need to find as many of them as possible and circle them. Be careful not to confuse them with rectangles or diamonds. Take your time, there are large and small squares, white and shaded... When you're done, put the pencil down.
Task 2.
And on this sheet you also need to find and circle as many figures as possible, but circles.
Evaluation of results:
For each square (circle) found, 1 point is awarded. Maximum score - 15 points
Standards (levels of development in points):
|
very low |
below the average |
above average |
very tall |
||
|
8 or less |
“Collect pictures” technique.
The technique allows you to study the features of holistic perception.
Material: 8 cut pictures, stopwatch.
Procedure of the experiment: the subject is presented one by one with cut-out pictures. Instructions: “Look carefully at these parts. If you put them together correctly, you will get a beautiful picture. Fold it as quickly as possible.” The time for each picture from the start of collection is counted separately and measured with a stopwatch.
Data processing.
Based on the experimental data, the following table is filled in.
|
Picture number |
Collection time |
|
2. It is calculated. The results obtained are compared with the results of other students in the class.
3. During the analysis, special attention is paid to the way the picture is put together (chaotic, random or sequential), the presence or absence of a semantic guess at the beginning of the task, the degree of speech activity of the child, the presence or absence of a connection between the number of details of the picture with the speed and correctness of composition. Based on the data obtained, a conclusion is made about the features of the integrity of perception of a primary school student.
2.2 Quantitative and qualitative analysis of the results obtained
By studying and analyzing the implementation of the proposed tasks by junior schoolchildren of grades 1 and 4, using the methods “What is missing in these pictures?”, “Find out who it is?”, “Collect pictures”, they determine the level of development of perception, the integrity of perception, the preservation of the visual image of the object .
Experimental studies confirm that in 1st grade children the level of perception development is low, and in 4th grade we saw that the level of perception is at an average level of perception. But among 4th grade students there are also students who have a very low level of development. And in the 1st grade there is a student who scored a very high result in one of the methods - the maximum number of 10 points. [Annex 1]. Such uneven results may depend on interest and motivation for this activity. This also suggests that even at the final initial stage of education, the development of this process continues. In both first-graders and fourth-graders, we observe syncriticism (undifferentiated) and integrity of the subject. All this happens thanks to increased attention to the relationship of the parts as a whole and the desire to find semantic connections when perceiving an object.
Level of development of perception in 1st grade students
|
Child's name |
Method No. 2 “Find out who it is?” |
General level of perception |
||
Processing of results: 80% of children have a low level of development and 20% have an average level.
Level of development of perception in 4th grade students.
|
Child's name |
Method No. 1 “What is missing from these pictures?” |
Method No. 2 “Find out who it is?” |
General level of perception |
|
Processing of results: 60% of children have an average level of perception development, 20% have a high level and 20% have a low level.
Studying the features of the integrity of perception of junior schoolchildren using the “Collect Pictures” method in grades 1 and 4, we were convinced that the integrity of perception among students in grade 4 is higher than that of students at the initial stage of education. [Appendix 2.]. The average arithmetic time for collecting a picture per student in the 1st grade takes 1 min 54 s, and in the 4th grade - 1 min 17 s. During the analysis, we paid attention to the way the picture was composed. In the 1st grade, students put together a picture chaotically, randomly, but in some children we observed the presence of a semantic guess, but only at the end of adding the picture. The children mainly showed speech activity. Despite the installation that the picture needs to be folded as quickly as possible. The children were in no hurry when completing this task. And in the 4th grade, students put together pictures more consistently, but we also observe that when completing a more difficult task, children begin to work chaotically or randomly. Here we notice the presence of a semantic guess at the beginning of the task, but not for all children. While completing the task, not a single child spoke; there was no speech activity. Children of this age were more responsible and anxious about completing this type of task. For them, both the speed of addition and the result are important. From all that has been said, we can conclude that the perception of 1st grade students is weakly differentiated. Children are bad at identifying the main, essential features of objects, and at seeing many different details in an object. In the development of voluntary perception, the word is of great importance. For 1st grade students, the word completes the process of perception. Also, when completing tasks, children had to show an example of addition. This suggests that in the 1st grade the perception of verbal material needs clarity and demonstration, but already in the 4th grade this is required to a lesser extent. We also see that for 4th grade students, perception turns into a purposeful, controlled, conscious process. At the same time, perception becomes deeper, the number of errors decreases.
Level of development of perceptual integrity in 4th grade students.
|
Child's name |
Arithmetic average time for collecting a picture |
|
Level of development of perceptual integrity in 1st grade students.
|
Child's name |
Arithmetic average time for collecting a picture |
|
|
Arithmetic average time for collecting pictures per child |
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Development of perception of younger schoolchildren
A modern school should cultivate “a person’s readiness for innovative behavior.” Obedience, repetition, and imitation are replaced by new requirements: the ability to see problems, calmly accept them and solve them independently. The high-tech world is rapidly changing day by day. In children of the 21st century. we must cultivate the habit of change and innovation; we must teach them to quickly respond to changing conditions, obtain the necessary information, and analyze it in a variety of ways.
Neuropsychologists say that in children of primary school age, the leading hemisphere is the right hemisphere, which specializes in non-verbal information - symbols, images. Therefore, the emphasis placed in the standard on students’ holistic perception of the world, on their search, independent activity, is completely consistent with the psychophysiological characteristics of younger schoolchildren. That is why, during the transition to new education standards, it is so important to pay attention to the development of the perception of younger schoolchildren.
The life of a person, especially a child, is a series of endless discoveries related to the acquisition, processing and transmission of new knowledge about oneself and the world around us. A child pronouncing words for the first time, a preschooler learning to read his name, a first grader mastering academic subjects at school; they are not aware and do not think about what processes contribute to the implementation of activities in the discovery of new knowledge.
Modern psychology classifies such activity as human cognitive activity, in which the leading role is played by processes - sensation, perception, attention, memory, thinking, imagination.
Each cognitive process has its own place in a child’s development, and they all closely interact with each other. Without attention, it is impossible to perceive and remember new material. Without perception and memory, thinking operations will become impossible. Therefore, developmental work aimed at improving a particular process will influence the level of development of other cognitive processes. The most important age period is the child’s childhood: infancy (from birth to one year) has a beneficial effect on the development of sensations, early age (1-3 years) – for the development of speech, preschool (3-7 years) – for the development of perception and memory, primary school (7 -11 years) - for the development of thinking. If these tasks for a certain age period of a child’s development are not solved for some reason, then it will be many times more difficult to do so, and sometimes even completely impossible. By the time children enter school, individual differences in the level of development of perception increase significantly.
What is the main significance of the development of perception for a primary school student?
Perception is the main process around which student development is built. The main process of the three cognitive processes (perception, thinking, memory). In fact, what is incorrectly or incompletely perceived will be equally incompletely comprehended, and therefore remembered. Therefore, the development of perception must be treated as responsibly as the construction of the foundation of a house.
What is perception?
Perception is the process of reflecting integral objects or phenomena in the human mind with their direct impact on the senses.
Sometimes the term “perception” refers to a system of actions aimed at becoming familiar with an object that affects the senses, i.e. sensory-research activity of observation.
L.S. Vygotsky unconditionally called perception an activity. This activity is eye movement. With the help of the motor perception system, “a complex process of combining many existing stimuli and reproduced images into one whole” is carried out.
D. B. Elkonin determined that “in the process of teaching a student in elementary school, “perception becomes thinking,” more analyzing, more differentiating, takes on the character of organized observation, and changes the role of the word in the perception of objects and phenomena.
Perception is based on sensations and previous experience. Sensations are the “building blocks” for the development of perception.
There are different types of perception: according to the leading analyzer: visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory, gustatory, kinistic.
According to the form of existence of matter - the perception of space, time, movement.
Functions of perception. Perception can be passive or active. With passive perception, the object itself influences the person, “launching” the process of perception. When actively perceiving an object, a person strives to name as many of its characteristics or events as possible using all his senses. He will think up some of the information, research it, imagine it.
As part of the perception process, four operations can be distinguished:
1) detection - the initial phase in which a person can only determine whether there is an impact;
2) discrimination - highlighting features of interest to a person in an object;
3) identification - comparison of an object with one of the samples known to man;
4) identification of familiar objects.
Methods of perception. Domestic science identifies two main sensorimotor methods of perception - examination and comparison. An examination is a specially organized perception of an object.
The examination scheme assumes a certain order:
Perception of the holistic appearance of an object;
Identification of its main parts and determination of their properties (shape, size, etc.);
Determination of the spatial relationships of parts relative to each other (above, below, to the left, etc.);
Identification of small details (parts) and determination of their size, ratio, location, etc.;
Holistic secondary perception of an object.
Comparison scheme:
Comparison of objects or their parts:
The superposition of objects on top of each other or the application of objects to each other;
Feeling, grouping by color, shape or other characteristics;
Sequential inspection and description of the identified features of the object.
A. A. Leontyev, the founder of the Russian theory of speech activity, believes that “Perception techniques need to be taught.” Therefore, the algorithm for developing perception will be as follows:
Presence of interest (indicative, cognitive) in the object;
Manifestation of attention (voluntary concentration on an object);
Actions of own perception;
Reliance on existing experience;
Creation of a generalized image of an object;
Fixing the image of an object in a word.
Exercises for developing perception. To train the speed and accuracy of perception of a child of primary school age, you can use a table with geometric figures of various shapes. The table can be with a set of letters, geometric shapes of different sizes, and graphic images.
Assignments for schoolchildren: try to count as quickly as possible:
How many times does the circle occur?
How many times does a square occur?
How many times does a triangle occur?
How many times does a rhombus appear?
How many times does the rectangle occur?
The child must be involved in the process of perception and interested.
A child is at ease in a visually perceived situation; his perception guides his thinking most accurately. Thinking follows perception. It is subject to perception. 
How many stars?
According to Vygotsky L.S. Children's perception from pictures goes through four main stages:
First is the perception of individual objects, the stage of objects;
Then the child begins to name objects and point out the actions that are performed by these objects - this is the action stage;
Later, the child begins to point out the attributes of the perceived object, which constitutes the stage of qualities or attributes;
And finally, the child begins to describe the picture as a whole, based on what it represents in the totality of its parts.
Study “Perception of the picture “Hare with a drum”, “ABC”, 1st grade according to the Zankov system.
| (25 people) | (22 people) | (26 people) |
|
| Items stage | |||
| Action stage | |||
| Stage of qualities or characteristics | |||
| Description of the picture as one whole |
The results of the study confirm the provisions of Vygotsky L.S.
Children should be introduced to the concept of the word “perception.” A conversation is held with children about what perception is.
“How many of you guys have heard the word “perception” before? What do you think it means to perceive the environment? How do we perceive speech sounds and letters? A person experiences the world with the help of his senses. There are five of them. These are the organs of hearing, vision, smell, touch, and taste. The ears “take care” of auditory perception, the eyes - of visual perception. We smell with our nose. With the tongue - taste, with the tips of the fingers - the quality of the surface of objects. To perceive an object is, first of all, to examine it from all sides in order to understand what it is. Our main goal in 1st grade is to learn to accurately perceive letters” (a conversation from the book by Lailo V.V. “Studying the alphabet and developing perception” was used).
Insufficient development of visual, visual-spatial and auditory perception is one of the reasons for school failure in younger schoolchildren.
Difficulties in mastering writing arise:
Formation of a visual image of a letter;
Formation of the correct trajectory of movements (fine motor skills);
Inability to copy a letter (uneven strokes);
Errors in the spatial arrangement of letter elements;
The first grader does not see the line.
Difficulties in teaching a child to read:
Poor memory of letter configurations;
Insufficient discrimination of letters that are similar in configuration;
Rearranging letters when reading;
Substitutions and incorrect pronunciation when reading;
Difficulties in merging;
Omissions or inattentive reading.
Difficulties in teaching a child mathematics:
Poor selection and discrimination of geometric shapes;
Difficulties in correct copying;
Replacing numbers.
Purposeful, systematic work on the development of perception will help lead to the elimination of these problems when teaching primary schoolchildren.
L.S. Vygotsky:
“All mental functions in childhood develop “around perception, through perception and with the help of perception.”
Literature.
1. Vygotsky L.S. Collected works: in 6 volumes. T 4.- M.: Pedagogika, 1982.
2. Zavyalova T. P., Starodubtseva I. V. Collection of game activities for the development of memory, attention, thinking and imagination in primary schoolchildren. – Moscow: ARKTI Publishing House, 2008.
3. Krutetsky V. A. Psychology of training and education of schoolchildren. – Moscow: Publishing house “Prosveshchenie”, 1976.
4. Laylo V.V. Studying the alphabet and developing perception - Moscow: Drofa Publishing House, 1999.
5. Lectures on pedology - Izhevsk: Udmurt University Publishing House, 2001.
6. Leontyev A.A. Teaching reading to primary schoolchildren: From work experience. – Moscow: Education, 1981.
7. Nikolskaya I. M., Granovskaya R. M. Psychological protection in children. - St. Petersburg: Rech, 2001.
8. Petrovsky A.V. Developmental and educational psychology. - Moscow, 1979.
A child’s ability to successfully engage in school learning largely depends on the level of development of his perception, or sensory development. Perception is the main cognitive activity, therefore normal mental development of a child is impossible without relying on full perception. Psychological research shows that by the beginning of school age, children’s perception, despite its great capabilities, is still very imperfect. When examining objects, children highlight the most striking, eye-catching properties. Under the influence of developing thinking, perception becomes thinking. This is what allows the child to successfully analyze the different properties of objects and compare them with each other (analyzing perception). Inexperienced teachers often underestimate the difficulties a child experiences when perceiving a new object. We need to teach children to look at an object, we need to guide its perception. By the end of primary school age, with appropriate training, the child develops a synthesizing perception, which allows (with the help of intelligence) to establish connections between the elements of what is perceived. The child is able not only to give a holistic description of the image, but also to supplement it with an explanation of the event or phenomenon that he observes.
The problem of managing perception in primary school age is directly related to the issue of visibility in learning. The principle of visibility is one of the main ones in elementary school.
Memory development
At primary school age, memory, like all other mental processes, undergoes significant changes due to qualitative transformations of thinking. The essence of these changes is that the child’s memory gradually acquires features of arbitrariness, becoming consciously regulated and mediated. Memory becomes “thinking”. Now the child must remember a lot, memorize the material, remember what he has learned and be able to reproduce it. A child’s inability to remember affects his educational activities and ultimately affects his attitude towards learning and school.
At this age, involuntary memory is well developed, recording vivid, emotionally rich information and events in the child’s life. However, not everything that a child has to remember is interesting and attractive to him. Therefore, immediate, emotional memory is no longer sufficient.
There is no doubt that a child’s interest in school activities, his active position, and high cognitive motivation are necessary conditions for the development of memory. However, as practice shows, interest in learning alone is not enough for the development of voluntary memory as the highest psychological function.
Improving memory in primary school age is primarily due to the development in the course of educational activities of various methods and strategies of memorization related to the organization and semantic processing of memorized material. Reliance on thinking, the use of various methods and means of memorization (grouping material, understanding the connections of its various parts, drawing up a plan, etc.) turns the memory of a primary school student into a true higher mental function - conscious, mediated, voluntary. The child’s memory changes from immediate and emotional to logical and semantic.
The basis of logical memory is the use of mental processes as a support, a means of memorization. In this regard, it is appropriate to recall the statement of L.N. Tolstoy: “Knowledge is only knowledge when it is acquired by the efforts of thought, and not by memory alone.”
The process of developing logical memory in younger schoolchildren must be specially organized, since the overwhelming majority of children of this age do not independently use methods of semantic processing of material and, for the purpose of memorization, resort to a proven means - repetition. But even having successfully mastered the methods of semantic analysis and memorization during training, children do not immediately come to use them in educational activities.
Primary school age is sensitive for the development of higher forms of voluntary memorization, therefore purposeful developmental work on mastering mnemonic activity is the most effective during this period. Its important condition is to take into account the individual characteristics of the child’s memory: its volume, modality (visual, auditory, motor), etc. There is a rule of memorization: in order to remember the material correctly and reliably, you need to actively work with it and organize it in some way.
Development of attention
When working with primary schoolchildren, the problem of attention is the most pressing. At the beginning of educational activities, children’s attention is still poorly organized, has a small volume, and is unstable. Attention is expressed in the precise execution of related actions. The images obtained through careful perception are distinguished by clarity and distinctness. With attention, thought processes proceed faster and more correctly, movements are performed more accurately and clearly.
It should be noted that, starting from the first grade, children become able to maintain attention on actions that acquire intellectually significant interest for them. By the end of primary school age, children's ability to voluntary attention begins to develop intensively. In the future, voluntary attention becomes an indispensable condition for organizing educational activities at school.
The state of attention of students is determined by the characteristics of teaching and depends both on the content of the material and on its presentation. A lively, bright, emotional presentation of meaningful, but at the same time interesting, accessible material, especially in the lower grades, is a condition for schoolchildren to be attentive in the classroom. Constant mental activity, supported in the lower grades by a variety of practical actions, is of great importance for the organization of attention. Maintaining the optimal pace of the lesson is also of certain importance.
The success of attention training is also largely determined by individual typological characteristics, in particular the properties of higher nervous activity. It has been established that different combinations of properties of the nervous system can promote or, on the contrary, hinder the optimal development of attention characteristics. In particular, people with a strong and mobile nervous system have stable, easily distributed and switched attention. Individuals with a weak nervous system are more likely to have unstable, poorly distributed and switchable attention.
To mobilize attention, it is necessary to intensify the educational work of children. They need to think more and do everything that is within their capabilities on their own. When forming attention, an indispensable condition is the presence of positive motivation for the main activity.
The inattention of younger schoolchildren is one of the most common reasons for poor performance. Mistakes “due to inattention” are the most offensive for children. In addition, they are the subject of reproaches and dissatisfaction from teachers and parents.
Formation of voluntary behavior in younger schoolchildren.
As noted earlier, primary school age is associated with significant changes in the psychological appearance of the child. The most important point of these transformations is the transition from direct behavior to mediated behavior, i.e. conscious and voluntary behavior. The child learns to manage himself, to organize his activities in accordance with his goals, consciously made decisions and intentions. This indicates the emergence of a new level of organization of the motivational-need sphere and is an important indicator of personal development.
The ability to act voluntarily develops gradually throughout primary school age. New behavior first arises in joint activity with an adult, who gives the child the means to organize such behavior, and only then becomes the child’s own individual way of acting. The teacher must know and understand how to structure the learning process in order to promote the development of the child as an independent person who can consciously manage his behavior.
Quite often one can observe such cases that children, having taken on any task, did not cope with it, because they did not understand its essence, quickly lost their initial interest in the task, or simply forgot to complete it on time. These difficulties can be avoided if, when giving children any assignment, you follow certain rules. Firstly, it is necessary that children, having received a task, immediately repeat it. This will force the child to mobilize, “tune in” to the task, better understand its content, and also take this task personally. Secondly, you need to invite children to immediately plan their actions in detail.
Numerous studies by Russian psychologists have identified the most essential conditions that allow an adult to develop in a child the ability to independently manage his or her behavior. These conditions are:
· The child has a motive for behavior.
When setting certain goals for a child, it is necessary to take into account the content of motives that are really effective for him. Only such motives can give a child’s actions personal meaning and motivate him to better fulfill the adult’s demands.
· Introduction of limiting goals.
When a child loses interest in completing a task or gets tired, it is necessary to set a specific goal for him; introducing a goal decisively changes the child’s behavior and affects the results of the work: children begin to complete the task in a fun, organized manner, at a faster pace; the amount of work completed increases significantly them earlier. It is important that the restrictive goal is set in the initial period of satiety with work or from the very beginning of work. Over time, the child develops the ability to set such goals himself and, in accordance with them, independently control his behavior and activities.
· Breakdown of an acquired complex form of behavior into independent and small actions.
The general goal, even if it is initially accepted by the child as positive, must be specified in specific goals, the achievement of each of which is real and accessible. The goals set for the child must be very specific. It is better to set a goal immediately before it is to be completed. The goal must first be set for a very short period of time, and as the new form of behavior is mastered, the planned completion time must be constantly increased.
· The presence of external means that are a support for mastering behavior.
Such means serve as a visual support and help the child control his actions. An example of a successful tool that allows a child to organize his behavior is an hourglass, which clearly shows the passage of time and helps regulate the pace of his activities.
Under certain conditions, children of primary school age are able to learn to organize their behavior in accordance with given goals and their own intentions. The child’s behavior becomes truly arbitrary: active, independent, mediated by his own goals and intentions. An important condition for the development of voluntary behavior is the participation of an adult who directs the child’s efforts, revealing their meaning and providing the means of mastery.
For elementary school students, the process of perception is often limited only to recognition and subsequent naming of an object. At the beginning of their studies, students are not capable of a thorough and detailed examination of the subject. The perception of students in grades 1-2 is weakly differentiated. First-graders often confuse objects that are similar to each other in one way or another. For example, the numbers 6 and 9, the letters 3 and E, etc. A common mistake is the mirror inversion of figures, letters, and numbers when depicting. To prevent younger schoolchildren from making such mistakes, it is necessary to teach them how to compare similar objects and teach them to find the differences between them.
With age, children must master the technique of perception, learn to look, listen, highlight the main, essential features of objects, and see many different details in an object. For schoolchildren studying at the secondary level, perception turns into a purposeful, controlled, conscious process.
In the development of voluntary perception, the word is of great importance. For 1st grade students, the word completes the process of perception. Having named an object, children stop analyzing it in detail. Students in grades 2-3, having named an object, continue to describe it in words. If in the 1st-2nd grades the perception of verbal material needs clarity and demonstration, then in the 3rd-4th grades this is required to a lesser extent.
Already when preparing children for school, it is necessary to develop the perception of such spatial means as the shape of objects, as well as color.
In younger schoolchildren, the accuracy of discrimination and the correct naming of geometric figures (square, circle, triangle) increases. But they have difficulty naming three-dimensional figures. In the development of the perception of form and space, lessons in natural history, labor, and physical education play a significant role.
At primary school age, the perception of the plot picture is improved. Children can already establish spatial connections between parts of the picture. German psychologist W. Stern identified three stages of children’s perception of pictures:
Transfer (from 2 to 5 years),
Description (from 6 to 9-10 years),
Interpretation or explanation (after 9-10 years).
These stages depend on the children’s experience and the degree of development of perception.
It is very important what question adults ask the child when looking at the picture. If the question “What is in the picture?” is asked, then the child begins to list the objects. And if the question is asked “What events are depicted in the picture?”, then a higher perception, explanation, interpretation is required.
In the process of teaching a student in elementary school, “perception becomes thinking” (Elko-nin D.B.). Perception becomes:
a) more analytical;
b) more differentiating;
c) takes on the character of organized observation;
d) the role of the word in the perception of objects and phenomena changes.
The development of perception cannot happen on its own. The role of the teacher and parents is very important, they can organize the activities of children in the perception of certain objects or phenomena, teach them to identify essential features, properties of objects and phenomena.
Psychological research has shown that one of the effective methods of organizing perception and cultivating observation skills is comparison. At the same time, perception becomes deeper, the number of errors decreases.
In elementary school, children begin to perceive time more correctly. Moreover, the perception of minutes from class to class becomes more correct. According to psychologist Shabalin N.S., most students underestimate the actual duration of a minute, but they exaggerate the duration of such periods of time as 10-15 minutes. It is necessary to teach primary schoolchildren to perceive such periods of time as an hour, a day, a week, a month.
The textbook outlines the main provisions of one of the sections of developmental psychology - psychology of primary school age: patterns, prerequisites and factors of mental development of primary schoolchildren - features of various types of activities, cognitive processes, various spheres of personality and mental neoplasms; the problems of psychological support for the development of younger schoolchildren are characterized; practical tasks and psychodiagnostic techniques are provided that can be used to study the characteristics of the mental development of a child of primary school age. The manual complies with the Federal State Educational Standard of Higher Professional Education of the third generation.
For undergraduate students in the areas of “Psychology” and “Psychological-pedagogical education”, it may also be useful for other specialists - teachers, psychologists, psychology teachers, and anyone interested in issues of developmental psychology.
Book:
By the beginning of primary school age, a child is characterized by a sufficient level of development of perception and sensory development: children have developed auditory perception, visual acuity, perception of color, shape, size, spatial characteristics of objects. Children perceive a wide variety of colors, shapes, and sounds. A child who comes to school is not only able to distinguish colors, shapes, sizes of objects and their spatial position, but can correctly name these properties in words, correctly correlate objects according to their specific characteristics, depict the simplest geometric shapes and paint them in the required color. Younger schoolchildren have already mastered the simplest sensory standards.
Educational activities make new demands on the perceptual processes of a primary school student. When perceiving educational material, arbitrariness and awareness of the perceptual activity of a primary school student, accuracy of perception of certain standards are required - samples that need to be guided by when performing educational actions. Arbitrariness and awareness of perception intensively develop under the influence of educational activities in close relationship with each other.
At the beginning of primary school age, children are attracted to the objects themselves and their external, most striking signs and properties. Children find it difficult to carefully examine all the features and elements of objects and identify among them the most important and essential properties, which often manifests itself in educational activities.
Case Study
In mathematics classes, first-graders often cannot analyze and correctly perceive the numbers 6 and 9; in Russian language classes, they confuse the letters in the Russian alphabet - E and Z, etc.
Therefore, educational activities are aimed at teaching primary schoolchildren to analyze, compare the properties of objects, highlight the most significant among them and express them using words. Children learn to perceive and focus their attention on various elements of educational material, regardless of its external attractiveness. Under the influence of this, arbitrariness, meaningfulness and selectivity of perception develop (primarily in terms of content, and not in terms of external bright signs). By the end of the first year of study, junior schoolchildren are able to perceive objects in accordance with their past experience, with educational motives, needs and interests related to educational activities. During the learning process, children master perception techniques, perceptual techniques of inspection and listening, and an algorithm for identifying the properties of objects. All this contributes to further intensive sensory-perceptual development of younger schoolchildren.
During primary school age, indicators of accuracy and speed of perception of signs of multidimensional stimuli improve, indicators of perception of incomplete contour images significantly improve, which indicates an improvement in the properties of apperception and anticipation of visual perception. The speed and accuracy of perception of primary schoolchildren are associated with the localization of stimuli in the visual perceptual field (perception indicators deteriorate when stimuli move in the direction from the center to the periphery of the perceptual field, and vice versa).
There are some features of the development of visual perception in primary schoolchildren with different types of laterality (right-handed, left-handed and ambidextrous). In a study by N.Sh. Korashvili revealed a connection between the levels of development of components of visual perception and “school” graphic errors found in notebooks, written texts and children’s work on the blackboard in right-handed, left-handed and ambidextrous children of primary school age. The author concluded that the appearance of specific types of graphic “school” errors is associated with a low level of development of certain components of visual perception (Table 2.1).
Table 2.1
“School” graphic errors of children of primary school age with a low level of development of a certain component of visual perception
As can be seen from the table, children with different types of laterality encounter different “school” graphic errors and in different quantities. With a low level of development of hand-eye coordination, there are errors No. 1 (uneven, crooked handwriting), No. 2 (letters either too large or very small), No. 3 (failure to follow the line). Left-handed people have more errors #2; for right-handers – errors No. 1 predominate; Ambidexters make all types of mistakes. A low level of development of figure-ground relationships leads to the appearance of errors No. 7 (errors in vocabulary words), No. 9 (writes words together). These two types of errors are more common in left-handed people than in right-handed people. Explaining errors in dictionary words only by spelling difficulties is not enough, since left-handers have much more of these errors (78.2%) than right-handers (36.4%). All ambidextrous children of school age have errors in vocabulary words, and 90% of ambidextrous children have error No. 9 (they write words together). Errors No. 4 (omission of letters), No. 5 (omission of endings), No. 8 (incorrect hyphenation of words), No. 13 (violation of the order of letters) correspond to a low level of development of constancy of perception. Moreover, in left-handed people and especially in ambidextrous people, all three types of errors occur more often than in their right-handed peers. The biggest difference is the presence of an error associated with a violation of the order of letters (No. 13). It almost never occurs in right-handed people (7.3%), 40% of left-handed children make this mistake, and 90% of children of primary school age make this mistake among ambidextrous children. That is, this error is inherent precisely in these two types of laterality. Left-handers and ambidextrous people also have more errors No. 10 (does not complete letters) and No. 12 (mirroring letters), which are manifestations of difficulties in the ability to determine position in space, however, the picture here is more favorable - the number of errors here is less than in the same groups children, but in other components of visual perception. This is a manifestation of the fact that the development of the ability to determine “position in space”, in comparison with other components of visual perception, suffers less. A low level of development of the perception of spatial relationships leads to errors No. 6 (confuses letters that are similar in spelling) and No. 11 (extra letters in words). Left-handers and ambidextrous people, as in previous cases, have more of these errors than right-handers. However, error number 6 (confuses letters that are similar in spelling) occurs much more often among left-handed people and ambidextrous people than among right-handed people.
At primary school age, the development of the ability to establish identity, the identity of objects in accordance with one or another standard continues, i.e., with an example of the main varieties of qualities and properties of objects created by humanity during the history of human culture and used by people as standards. Standards are intended to establish the correspondence of the properties of the perceived surrounding reality to one or another sample from a system of ordered standards. Children master sensory standards in a certain sequence: first they become familiar with the main patterns, and then with their varieties. In this case, various standards are compared with each other and called a word, first by the adult, and then by the child himself, which ensures their good memorization. At primary school age, the ability to correlate perceived qualities with a standard, name them correctly, establish identity, partial similarity and dissimilarity of properties and qualities is improved. In the process of purposefully examining, feeling or listening, children perform correlative actions and identify the connection between the perceived object and the standard. The perception of complex shapes of objects is improved, in which the general outlines, the shape of the main part, the shape and location of secondary (smaller) parts and individual additional elements are highlighted. At primary school age, the ability to consistently examine various complex shapes of objects intensively develops.
The greatest difficulty for younger schoolchildren is the analysis of the combination of colors, shapes and sizes of objects with a complex structure. Performing tasks of identifying and evaluating elements of complex structures and analyzing connections between these elements requires well-developed analytical perception. Junior schoolchildren learn to examine complex and varied combinations of properties of objects, determine a certain rhythm in the arrangement of individual color tones, distinguish combinations of warm colors from combinations of cold shades, etc. In the process of perceiving forms of a complex structure, the ability to visually divide them into separate elements corresponding to one or another is improved. geometric standards, determine connections and relationships between these elements.
At all stages of perceptual activity in examining a form, the technique of children tracing the outline of an object and its details is often used, which contributes to the comparison of the traced form with certain standards and the gradual improvement and development of the eye. The eye is intensively developed in various types of games and in productive activities, during which primary schoolchildren select the necessary parts that are missing for construction, divide a piece of plasticine so that it is enough for all the elements of the object, create applications and collages, draw, etc. Game activities , combined with educational activities aimed at the sensory development of primary schoolchildren, contribute to faster and more effective assimilation of sensory information. In games, children learn to feel, compare the shape and color of objects, assimilate sensory standards, establish and analyze complex connections between the color and shape of an object, between simple and complex forms, between objects and their position in space, in the plane of a drawing or painting, without noticing it , easy, conscious and effective.
Case Study
The didactic game “Guess the Shape” is aimed at developing the perception of shape in primary schoolchildren. Children are offered a set of geometric shapes. On the board or in front of the students are images of a notebook, pencil case, eraser, paints, and sharpener. Schoolchildren are asked to name all the drawn objects and choose a generalizing word for them, then, with their eyes closed, determine by touch what geometric figure the teacher gave, name objects similar to a triangle (square, circle, rectangle, etc.).
Younger schoolchildren continue to develop the analytical perception of size, which is associated not with the isolation and combination of elements of a complex whole, but with the identification of various dimensions of an object - its length, height and width. Since it is impossible to separate length and width from the object itself, children learn to compare objects according to these measurements. Children gradually realize the relativity of the dimensions of an object, the dependence of their definition on spatial location.
The development of the perception of space and time, which are interconnected, continues. The higher the level of development of spatial concepts, the more accurate the primary school student’s ideas about time. There are some gender-specific features in the development of perception of space and time: boys often have more complete and adequate spatial ideas and an idea of the space of their own body compared to girls, and girls are often characterized by more differentiated and adequate ideas about time than boys. During primary school age, concepts of space and time become more accurate, adequate, generalized and mediated by intellectual processes.
S.D. Lutskovskaya notes that temporal ideas about the sequence of events are formed in younger schoolchildren earlier than other temporal characteristics, but they are contradictory: children simultaneously operate with a temporal sequence, both linear and cyclical (like movement in a circle). Children aged 7 years have ideas about a sequence containing from three to seven elements. Children's ideas about duration are characterized by the following features: in their speech, children use the names of all main time intervals: second, minute, hour, day, morning, evening, night, day, 24 hours, week, month, year. At the same time, many children have no idea about the real duration and the ratio of the duration of the listed intervals. Children's ideas also contain situational estimates of the time interval. With the intellectual development of younger schoolchildren, the expansion of practical experience in mastering the methods of constructing models of time relations and orientation in time, children acquire a more complete and accurate assimilation of the category of time.
Increasingly accurate identification of the properties of objects, their spatial characteristics and connections, and improved observation contribute to improving the perception of a plot (including artistic) picture by primary schoolchildren. By the beginning of primary school age, children realize that a picture or drawing is a reflection of reality and try to correlate them with elements of the surrounding world, see what is depicted in them, perceive a multi-color palette of colors, can correctly evaluate a perspective image, since they know that one and the same object located at a far distance looks small in the picture, but close up it looks much larger. Therefore, children carefully look at the images and correlate some depicted objects with others. The perception of drawings and paintings contributes to the development of the sign function of consciousness and artistic taste.
At primary school age, the sensory organization is differentiated and a dominant information channel is identified, characterized by the predominance of various sensory dominants in the development of perception. Children with different types of dominant perception channel differ in some features of educational activity that should be taken into account in the learning process (Fig. 2.1).
By the end of primary school age, a synthesizing perception is formed, which allows (with the support of intellectual activity) to establish connections between the elements of perceived objects and phenomena. Children become able not only to give an accurate, holistic description of an object and its image, but also to supplement it with their own explanation of the depicted event or phenomenon. The main factor determining the construction of adequate perceptual actions and the development of perception is a variety of practical actions to transform environmental objects. At primary school age, an integral system of operational units of perception and sensory standards that mediate perception is formed.
Characteristics of children with different dominant information channels:
Visuals
they perceive new material better when it is written in a book, on a blackboard, presented schematically, cope better with written tasks rather than oral ones, master spelling rules better and make fewer spelling mistakes, love pictures and colors, and also like to see and make tables and diagrams
Audials
they perceive information better by hearing, speak and listen more willingly, remembering the pronunciation of words and intonation, read aloud, learn poetry and prepare retellings, prefer to listen to information rather than read it silently, write summaries better
Kinesthetics
They learn the material better when they can explore it through active movements, they prefer actions: to emphasize something, circle, rearrange, etc., they learn new information more easily by writing it down after the teacher or copying it from a source, they are happy to act out scenes based on the studied material
Rice. 2.1. Features of educational activities of children with different types of perception
